I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings Theme Reflection Essay

In the story, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, there are many themes. Two of them include racism and displacement. At a very young age, Maya met the effects of racism and segregation in America. She had been told about the differences between blacks and whites, which developed her belief that only blonde hair is beautiful and that she is a fat black girl stuck in a nightmare. However, Stamps, Arkansas, was so segregated that as a child Maya never really saw white people which made her believe that they didn’t exist. As Maya gets older, she is approached by more personal incidents of racism, such as a white dentist’s refusal to treat her. These unfair events humiliate Maya and her relatives. She learns that living in a very racist society has shaped her family members, and she tries to overcome them. Resistance to racism has many forms in I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. Big Bailey buys glitzy clothes and drives a fancy car to state his wealth and runs around with women to declare his masculinity in the face of degrading and reducing racism. Momma keeps her pride by seeing things realistically and keeping to herself. Daddy Clidell’s friends learn to use white peoples’ racism against them in worthwhile cons. Maya first experiments with resistance when she breaks her white employer’s heirloom china. Her bravest act of disobedience happens when she becomes the first black streetcar conductor in San Francisco. Blacks also used the church as a place of revolutionary resistance. This story also includes the theme of displacement. Maya is moved around to seven different homes between the ages of three and sixteen. As said in the poem she tries to recite on Easter, the statement â€Å"I didn’t come to stay† becomes her shield against the reality of her rootlessness. Maya is always humiliated, making her unable to put down her shield and feel comfortable staying in one place. When she is thirteen she moved to San Francisco with her mother, Bailey, and Daddy Clidell. She finally feels that she belongs somewhere for the first time. As Maya continues her journey, she realizes that thousands of other terrified black children made the same journey as she and Bailey. Traveling on their own to newly wealthy parents in northern cities, or back to southern towns when the North failed to supply the economy it had promised. African Americans descended from slaves who were displaced from their homes and homelands in Africa, and blacks continued to struggle to find their place in a country friendly to their heritage.

Succubus Dreams CHAPTER 3

After a good night's sleep, I went to work the next morning, feeling a bit more optimistic about life. I decided Tawny had probably already scored last night, and Niphon was on his way to the airport. Plus, I'd get to see Seth soon since he had made my place of employment, Emerald City Books & Caf? ¦, his writing headquarters. Yes, it wouldn't be such a bad day. Due to my ex-manager's complicated pregnancy, I'd recently inherited her position. This had left my old assistant-manager position vacant, and we'd ended up hiring Maddie Sato who just happened to be the sister of Doug Sato – the other assistant manager. It had been a stunning display of favoritism, and Doug had thrown a fit, complaining how we'd just lowered his coolness rating by ten points. As it was, Maddie already lived with him. She'd come to visit after his recent hospitalization and never really left. She had a second job as a freelance writer at a feminist magazine, and working at Emerald City gave her a more stable source of income. I liked Maddie. She was smart and capable and had a twisted sense of humor that spoke to mine. She worked well with customers and was always very polite in a professional capacity. For example, she could get caught up talking with Seth about ‘writerly' topics and function beautifully. But, when it came to friendlier and more interpersonal stuff, her social skills were a bit lacking. After a particularly analytical writing discussion, Seth had once made an off-hand comment about her childhood, and she'd frozen up. Seeing him with someone even more socially awkward than he was had been amusing, but mostly I'd felt disappointed at her relapse. I'd made good progress in getting her to come out of her shell and knew how fun she could be. I wanted everyone else to see it too. Today I found her upstairs in the caf? ¦, sitting at the table Seth had staked out with his laptop. It apparently wasn't a writerly day because Doug sat with them. He and Maddie appeared to be in some sort of heated argument. Seth sat between them, looking like he desperately wanted to be somewhere else. Catching my eye, he gave me a pleading look. I purposely slid a chair up beside him, forcing Doug to scoot his own chair over. No one knew Seth and I were dating, and the Sato siblings were so caught up in the discussion they didn't think anything of the chair placement. â€Å"What's going on?† I asked. â€Å"It had better involve the fate of the store to be detaining the entire management team.† The holidays were nearly upon us, and business was insane lately. Maddie had the grace to look embarrassed, suddenly remembering her duties. She opened her mouth to speak, but Doug interrupted her. â€Å"My illustrious sister's an insensitive bitch.† Maddie rolled her eyes. â€Å"He has some crazy ideas about Beth.† I sighed. â€Å"Look, if this is about the time Beth wore leg warmers here – â€Å" â€Å"Don't remind me of that,† grumbled Doug. â€Å"My illustrious brother has this crazy idea that Beth just broke up with someone,† explained Maddie. Both looked at me as though they expected me to set this matter straight. Puzzled, I glanced back and forth between them. â€Å"Why's that crazy?† â€Å"Because she has a cold,† said Maddie. â€Å"She said she has a cold. That's why she's sniffling.† â€Å"She's pretending to have a cold,† cried Doug. â€Å"What kind of sick and twisted world is this when an asshole like me is the one to notice heartache in the masses? For God's sake, her eyes are all red.† â€Å"Cold,† Maddie repeated firmly. She considered. â€Å"Or maybe allergies.† â€Å"In December?† The two of them bickered on. Beside me, Seth fought – and failed – to keep a straight face. I studied the way his lips curved into a smile, liking their shape and recalling how they felt. I turned my attention back to the siblings, enjoying the show. Finally, after about five more minutes, I remembered I was an authority figure and not a slacker employee. â€Å"Why is this a big deal?† I asked. â€Å"Because she's wrong,† Doug said. â€Å"I'm just trying to prove that.† Maddie sighed. â€Å"You're like a twelve-year-old.† â€Å"Am not.† He jabbed her in the arm. â€Å"Okay, enough.† I pointed to Doug. â€Å"You, register.† I pointed to Maddie. â€Å"You, my office.† â€Å"Ooh†¦you're in trouble,† Doug told her. â€Å"I'm going to show her how to process orders,† I growled. Maddie's eyes gleamed with anticipation, dimples appearing in her round cheeks. She ate up new tasks. â€Å"Female favoritism,† said Doug. â€Å"You like her better than me, don't you? It's okay. You can tell me. I can take it.† â€Å"Go. Both of you. I'll be down in a sec.† I looked at Seth when they were gone. â€Å"This is why I don't have children,† I told him. That wasn't true, of course. Not true at all. Children simply weren't in the cards for succubi. â€Å"Although†¦I think Doug's actually right,† I mused. â€Å"As crazy as that is. I saw Beth on my way in.† Seth smiled. â€Å"Maddie's a good writer and super smart, but she's kind of oblivious to other people.† I gave him a wry look. â€Å"I thought that was true about all writers.† â€Å"Some are worse than others.† â€Å"Shocking. You rode in a car with her for, what, four hours? What'd you guys talk about?† â€Å"Writing.† I sighed. â€Å"I wish she'd relax around people other than Doug and me. She's hilarious. She came up with the idea to Silly String Doug's car after he said Betty Friedan was PMSing when she wrote The Feminine Mystique.† â€Å"I'm not sure I'd describe that as ‘hilarious' so much as ‘scary.' Besides, that was your idea,† he reminded me. â€Å"You two are dangerous. Your whole soul-stealing act seems kind of softcore compared to the stuff you and Maddie concoct.† I grinned. It was true. I hadn't really hung out with a lot of women in the last century or so and was discovering I'd been missing out. â€Å"You have no idea. Social awkwardness or not, she's the best thing that's happened to me in a while.† â€Å"Oh?† â€Å"Well, present company excluded of course.† â€Å"Sure. Whatever you say.† â€Å"Hey.† I almost grabbed his hand, then remembered we were in public. â€Å"There's no competition. You're a better cook. And a better kisser.† â€Å"I didn't realize you'd tried her out.† â€Å"Well, you know how much I like writers.† My smile slipped a little as my mind switched subjects. I'd been thinking about my energy loss all morning, particularly since I'd probably be seeking my hit tonight or tomorrow. Jerome had blown the matter off, but like usual, I couldn't let it go. I decided then that I'd go visit my friend Erik Lancaster, Seattle's local mortal source of occult knowledge. He seemed to know more than my cronies half the time. I extended the invitation to Seth, and he agreed to come with me. I was glad. I had often thought it might do him some good to talk to another human who regularly dealt with the supernatural. This was as good of a time as any. Seth met me at my place after work, and we microwaved a quick dinner before heading out. As we walked down the stairs of my building, he teased me about Maddie again. â€Å"You guys were working in the office a while. Sure you weren't making out?† â€Å"Not too much,† I assured him. He laughed and caught hold of my hand. I jerked him toward me. Our lips met in a kiss, and as the warmth of his body stirred mine, I had no doubts about what the best thing in my life was. After a few sweet moments, we followed the drill and separated, our reluctance making the disentanglement a bit awkward in execution. â€Å"Yeah,† I told him. â€Å"She's definitely not as good a kisser as – â€Å" I cut myself off, grimacing as I felt Niphon coming toward us. His immortal aura felt slimy and musky. I stepped farther away from Seth and glared down the sidewalk at the approaching imp. Seeing me, he waved a hand in greeting. â€Å"Excuse me a moment,† I muttered. I skipped down the steps and blocked Niphon from getting within earshot of Seth. â€Å"What do you want?† â€Å"Attitude, attitude, Letha,† he tsked. â€Å"Succubi should be charming and cordial at all times.† He peered beyond me. â€Å"Is that the human boyfriend? Can I meet him?† â€Å"You can go the fuck away. You're supposed to be keeping an eye on Tawny.† â€Å"I have been,† he said cheerfully. â€Å"That's why I came to see you. I followed her last night. She was quite confident in her abilities but had some difficulty arranging an assignation in the end. Poor thing. It seems she may take longer than suspected in getting established. Fortunately, I'll stay with her until the end.† His mocking concern dug into me, just as he'd intended. â€Å"Is that all you came to tell me? Because I'm leaving now. I've got to be somewhere.† â€Å"Of course, of course,† he simpered. He gestured vaguely in Seth's direction. â€Å"I didn't mean to interrupt your heated moment, even if it looked like it was about to cool down.† A sudden look of realization crossed his face. â€Å"You don't sleep with him, do you? You've got some sort of noble sense of duty about absorbing his life. That poor, poor man.† Niphon laughed. â€Å"Oh, Letha. You are one of the most fascinating creatures I've ever come across.† I turned my back on him and stormed up to Seth. â€Å"Come on, we're leaving.† â€Å"Who was that?† he asked as we walked away. â€Å"He's an imp. And an asshole.† Even almost a block away, I could still just barely catch Niphon's taunting laughter. I tried to ignore it as Seth and I walked to his car. Listening to my friends tease me about Seth was annoying enough. From Niphon, it was unbearable. Fortunately, I calmed down by the time Seth and I got on the road. I instead focused on seeing Erik and hopefully getting my mystery solved. Erik ran a store up in Lake City called Arcana, Ltd. Unfortunately placed in a strip mall, it nonetheless possessed a warm, cozy feel. Dim lighting shed a tranquil air, and the bubbling of small fountains mingled with the soft sounds of a CD player emitting harp music. Books, jewelry, candles, and statuary cluttered up every inch of free space. The sweet scent of nag champa hung in the air. â€Å"Neat,† said Seth, peering around as we entered. Erik glanced up from where he was kneeling behind a stack of books. He'd grown a mustache since last I saw him, and I liked the way the gray hair stood out against his dark brown skin. A gentle smile bloomed on his face. â€Å"Miss Kincaid, what an unexpected pleasure. And you have a friend.† He rose and walked to us, extending his hand toward Seth. â€Å"Erik, this is Seth Mortensen. Seth, Erik.† They shook. â€Å"A pleasure, Mr. Mortensen. You keep good company.† â€Å"Yes,† said Seth, smiling in return. â€Å"I do.† â€Å"If we're lucky,† I said silkily, â€Å"Erik will have time for tea. He only serves decaf, so that should make you happy.† â€Å"Of course I have time,† said Erik. â€Å"I doubt there's any man who doesn't have time for you, Miss Kincaid.† I shot Seth a teasing look when Erik left to put the tea on. â€Å"Ah, now there's someone who appreciates me. You wouldn't see him shirking me for a book.† â€Å"If memory serves, you worship those books. Besides, how else am I supposed to keep you in the lifestyle you're accustomed to?† â€Å"If memory serves, I paid the last time we went out.† â€Å"Well, yeah. I was just letting you play liberated so that you and Maddie wouldn't go vandalize my car.† When our tea party commenced around Erik's small corner table, I was surprised to hear Seth engage Erik in conversation on what it meant to be a mortal among immortals. Seth wasn't usually so forthcoming, and I wondered just how much immortal weirdness troubled him. â€Å"It puts my sense of time awry,† remarked Erik. â€Å"I see people like Miss Kincaid who stay young and beautiful forever. It makes me feel as though no time has passed. Then I look at myself and see the new wrinkles. I feel the aches in my bones. I realize I will be left behind†¦they will go on and continue to shape the world without me.† He sighed, more with bemusement than sadness. â€Å"I wish I could see what will happen next.† â€Å"Yes,† Seth said, surprising me. His eyes looked dark and solemn. â€Å"I know what you mean.† I glanced over at him, seeing something I'd never noticed before. I knew he must think about the future and his own death – all mortals did – but only now did I realize how much he really thought about those things. Looking at both men, I remembered they would eventually die, and it made something in my chest grow cold. For the space of a heartbeat, I could almost see Seth as wrinkled and gray-haired as Erik. â€Å"Morbid much, you guys?† I asked, trying to affect a blas? ¦ air. â€Å"I didn't come here to bring everyone down. I've got to pick Erik's brain.† â€Å"Pick away,† he said. â€Å"Well†¦you know how I need, uh, life and energy to survive, right?† An idiotic statement. Of course he knew. â€Å"Yesterday morning, I woke up, and my entire stash was gone.† Erik considered. â€Å"That's normal, isn't it? It fades over time.† â€Å"Not this quickly. Especially since†¦Ã¢â‚¬  I stopped, suddenly realizing having Seth here might not have been so wise after all. â€Å"I, um, had just gotten a refill the night before.† Both men kept neutral expressions. â€Å"And you did nothing out of the ordinary?† â€Å"No, Jerome thinks it was mental stress.† I shrugged. â€Å"I don't think I was that stressed. I dreamed†¦a weird dream†¦but nothing stressful.† â€Å"Dreams are powerful,† Erik said. â€Å"And sometimes stress can take more out of us than we realize. Unfortunately, I know little about dreams, but†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He frowned, and his gaze suddenly turned inward. â€Å"But what?† â€Å"I know someone who might be able to help. Someone who specializes in dreams.† â€Å"Who?† This sounded promising. Erik took a long time in answering. When he spoke, he seemed unhappy to give up the words. â€Å"Someone who might as well be signed and sealed to your side. His name's Dante Moriarty.† I snickered. â€Å"That can't be his real name.† â€Å"It's not, though I'm sure some of your imp and demon friends would know him by any name. He's a con artist†¦among other things. Considers himself a magician too.† â€Å"I deal with corrupt people all the time,† I pointed out. â€Å"Doesn't bother me much.† â€Å"True,† agreed Erik. He still looked troubled, which I found puzzling. Although not evil himself, he interacted with me and others of my ilk on a regular basis without blinking. I wondered what it was about one human that would bother him so much. â€Å"I'll get you his contact information.† He sought out Dante's card, and I browsed around the store while Seth used the bathroom in the back. The old storekeeper handed me the card when he found it. â€Å"I like Mr. Mortensen a great deal.† â€Å"Yeah. So do I.† â€Å"I know. I can tell.† I looked up from a display of bracelets, waiting for more. â€Å"You talk and move around each other in a way you're probably not even aware of. It's like how lovers usually interact†¦but it's something more too. You have a continual sense of each other, I think, even when not together. There's a burning in the air between you.† I didn't know what to say to that. It sounded nice – but a little intimidating too. â€Å"I've never met another of your kind who's exactly like you, Miss Kincaid.† He hesitated, his normally wise-and-competent expression flickering into uncertainty. It was a rare look for him. â€Å"I don't know how this will turn out.† Seth emerged then, picking up that he'd interrupted something. He glanced between the two of us, and I rested a reassuring hand on his arm. â€Å"You about ready to go?† â€Å"Sure.† I scanned the rest of the jewelry counter, only half-noticing the contents. Suddenly, I did a double-take and leaned over one of the cases. â€Å"Erik, where do you find this stuff?† He and Seth looked over my shoulder. â€Å"Ah, yes,† said Erik. â€Å"The Byzantine rings. By the same artist who made your ankh necklace.† â€Å"Your artist has a real knack for historical detail. They look just like the originals.† He walked around the counter and lifted out the tray with the rings. I picked one up. It was an ordinary gold band. Rather than any sort of mounted gem on top, it bore a smooth and flat disc, almost the size of a dime. Greek letters were engraved into the metal. â€Å"What do they mean?† asked Seth. I tried to explain the long-lost custom. â€Å"It's a benediction. Like a prayer for the couple. This would have been a wedding ring.† I examined another depicting Christ and the Virgin; still another showed a tiny man and woman facing each other. â€Å"I used to have a ring almost like this,† I said softly, turning it over in my hands. Neither man said anything, and I finally returned it to its tray. On the way home, Seth gently asked, â€Å"What happened to your ring?† I stared out the window. â€Å"It's not important.† â€Å"Tell me.† I didn't respond, and he didn't ask me again. When we got back to my place, I saw no sign of Vincent and figured he was out investigating with Charlie's Angels. Newspapers were scattered across my kitchen table; he apparently liked to keep up on current events. Morbid events, at that. One of the headlines was a story I'd heard the other day about a crazy man who'd killed his wife after having a vision of seeing her with another man. Mortals did creepy things sometimes. Okay, a lot of the time. Seth sat on my couch and leaned forward, hands clasped together. I'd sensed his mood shift when I wouldn't answer in the car. â€Å"Thetis†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"You want to know about the ring.† â€Å"The ring doesn't matter so much. It's just†¦well, I've seen you get like this. Something bugs you, something you remember. But you won't talk to me about it. There are days I feel like you don't tell me anything.† I sat down next to him, avoiding eye contact in a way he often did. â€Å"I tell you plenty.† â€Å"Not about your past.† â€Å"I have a lot of past, and I talk about it all the time.† â€Å"Yeah†¦I guess.† He absentmindedly stroked my arm. â€Å"But you don't talk about your mortal past. Before you were a succubus.† â€Å"So? Does it make a difference? You're with me now. You know the kind of person I am now.† â€Å"I do. And I love that person. And I want to know what's important to you. What made you who you are. I want to know what hurts you so that I can help.† â€Å"You don't need to know that to know who I am. My human past doesn't enter in to anything,† I said stiffly. â€Å"I can't believe that.† Again, I didn't answer. â€Å"I don't know anything about that part of your life,† he continued. â€Å"I don't know your real name. What you really look like. Where you grew up. I don't even know how old you are.† â€Å"Hey, it's not just me. You have plenty of things you don't talk about,† I pointed out, trying to deflect the attention. â€Å"What do you want to know?† â€Å"Well†¦Ã¢â‚¬  I groped for something I didn't know much about. â€Å"You never talk about your dad. How he died.† Seth answered immediately, without hesitation. â€Å"Not much to tell. Cancer. I was thirteen. According to a therapist Mom made us see, I withdrew into a world of fantasy to cope.† I leaned my head against his shoulder, knowing he'd expound on anything I wanted to know – in a subdued, Seth sort of way. It was ironic considering his normal conversational reticence, but that was how he operated. He believed relationships had to have an open exchange of honesty and baring of souls. I supposed he was right, but there were too many dark parts of my soul I didn't want to share. Parts I was afraid would scare him off. I knew Seth well enough to realize he wouldn't push this issue anymore tonight, but I could also sense his hurt and disappointment. He didn't ask me these questions to upset me; he did it out of sincere affection. That didn't make it easier, unfortunately, and I fought my anxiety and long-buried pain to try to offer him something. Anything. Anything to show I was making an effort in this relationship. My original face and name were dead to me, obsolete reminders of the woman I'd left behind, never mind Niphon's insistence on calling me Letha. Seth would never know those things. We sat together for a long time while I decided what I could give up. Finally, with the words sticking in my mouth, I said, â€Å"I grew up in Cyprus.† The air grew tense as we both waited for more. â€Å"In the early fifth century. I don't know exactly what year I was born. We didn't really keep track of those things.† He exhaled. I hadn't realized he'd been holding his breath. Slowly, carefully, he put an arm around me and pressed his lips against my hair. â€Å"Thank you.† I buried my face against his shoulder, not knowing what I hid from. I'd barely given him anything – just a couple of pieces of trivia. Nonetheless, yielding that tiny bit from a place in me I wanted to hide from was powerful. I felt exposed and vulnerable without fully understanding why. Seth gently stroked my hair. â€Å"Is the ring from around that time?† he asked. I nodded against him. â€Å"It'd be worth a lot then, I suppose.† â€Å"I lost it,† I whispered. He must have picked up on the anguish in my voice. He held me tighter. â€Å"I'm sorry.† We stayed together a while longer that night, but I knew he wanted to go home and work at his own place. Unable to deny him, I shooed him away, though I had a feeling that he would have stayed if I'd asked it. Once he was gone, I went into my bedroom and closed the door. Kneeling in front of my open closet, I pulled out box after box, setting them haphazardly around the room. My organization lacked something – like, say, organization – and it took me a while to sift through the clutter of junk. Finally, I produced a shoebox covered in dust. Lifting the lid, I felt my breath catch. Old, brown letters lay stacked with a few photographs. A heavy gold cross on a fraying string lay among the papers, along with other small treasures. I carefully hunted around until I found what I wanted: a bronze ring, green with age. I held it in my hands, still able to discern the engraved couple atop the mounted disc. It was a cruder job but still very similar to Erik's modern renditions. I ran my fingertips along the ring's edges without knowing what I did. I even tried it on, but it didn't fit. It had been made for larger fingers than I had now. I refused to shape-shift to the right size. I kept the ring out for a few more minutes, thinking of Seth and Cyprus and all sorts of things. Finally, unable to stand the ache within me, I put the ring back into its box and buried it once more in the closet.

The Professor And The Madman

The Professor and the Madman, written by Simon Winchester, is a biography about the making of the Oxford English Dictionary. Winchester, who is an author, journalist, broadcaster and foreign correspondent, has written for many magazines and newspapers distributed worldwide. In an interview between Winchester and a host of C-SPAN, Winchester was asked where the idea for the book came, he replies Well, it came to me in a rather bizarre way. I was reading a book on lexicography in the bath one morning, as one does, I suppose, just before breakfast, and it was a book–a wonderful book called â€Å"Chasing The Sun† by a man called Jonathan Green. And it had a reference–it said, `Readers will be familiar with the extraordinary story of Dr. W. C. Minor, an American lunatic murderer, who was a prodigiously energetic contributor to the OED. ’ And I remember sitting up in the bath, Archimedeslike, dripping and saying, `Well, I know nothing about this. ’ Winchesters main foundation for this book is to clarify the tale of the making of the Oxford English Dictionary The formation of the Oxford English Dictionary began in 1857 and took seventy years to finish. Tens of thousands of individuals organized the expansive language into 414,825 exact definitions. The story begins with the grisly murder of George Merrett, by William Chester Minor the former U. S. Army officer and qualified surgeon. On February 17th of 1872 in the early morning William Minor had been sleeping, when he awoke to some noises of someone in his flat. He sat up and saw someone standing at the foot of his bed. He proceeded to chase the individual into the street, and shot at the person as they attempted to flee. He ended up shooting the first person that came into view apparently, and this person was George Merrett. Merrett had never met W. C Minor and had been heading home after a long day at work. W. C Minor was arrested. While in prison, he appeared to act exceptionally strange. One of the guards told the jury that Minor accused him of paying people to enter his room and molest him while he slept. This evidence clearly showed that W. C Minor was insane and was sent to the Asylum for the Criminally Insane, Broadmoore. The judge stated that he would remain there until her Majestys Pleasure be known. Professor James Murray, an extraordinarily educated former schoolmaster and bank clerk, sent out an announcement about the making of the Oxford English Dictionary, asking for literary contributions. From his cell in Broadmoore, Minor came across this announcement and began contributing examples from his massive collection of new and scarce antique books. Minor had an enormous collection of books in his cell, which were not available to Murray and the staff, where the dictionary was being created. Thousand of neat and well-written quotes and examples came from Minor over several years to Oxford. Murray was only fifty miles away from where Minor was living, and had no idea that Minor was committed to an asylum. On several occasions Minor had been asked to visit Murray In Oxford, where they could meet and discuss the dictionary. Minor declined all invitations, without an explanation, and only an apology. After being rebuffed several times, Murray offered to visit Minor and Minor accepted the offer. Upon arrival Murray discovered that Minor was not a doctor of the asylum as he had assumed, but a resident. Murray was shocked, but that didnt dissuade him from visiting Minor. Although Minor constantly complained about people molesting him while he slept, people breaking into his room at night, and his personal possessions being vandalized Murray ignored the strange comments and went on with his visits. Minors stepbrother began writing appeals to the court, asking that his brother be allowed to transfer to a hospital in the United States. James Murray, who spent more than 40 years editing the dictionary, and up until 1910 wrote and visited Minor regularly, until Minor was released and allowed to go back to the U. S. On July 16th 1915 Murray died, surrounded by friends and relatives. In November 1915 Minor wrote to Lady Murray, offering all his books to the Scriptorium. On Friday March 26th 1920 Minor died from a cold that developed into bronchopneumonia. The English Oxford Dictionary took eight more years to be completed. On New Years Eve of 1927 its completion was announced. The Professor and the madman is a wonderfully written biography. Before each chapter was a word that defined the whole chapter. Most of the book was in chronological order, except for the parts where the author backtracked in order to elaborate. The postscript and authors note gave a bit of insight on where he got his idea to write the book, and some of his resources. Unlike The Bluest Eye written by Toni Morrison, the diction was easy to follow, and storyline was far from depressing. Winchester was very straightforward, and turned a little known tale into a well-written and very compelling book. I had my doubts about this particular book. I got this book, when the report was first assigned. I attempted to read, but found the first chapter dreadfully boring, and returned the book to the bookstore. I forgot about the report until I was reminded a week ago. I went to go and find a different book, but had no luck, so I bought the book again. I am glad that I did end up with this book. I enjoyed The Professor and the Madman immensely. I have no recollection of ever hearing about the authors of the Oxford English Dictionary.

Foundation Business Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Foundation Business Management - Essay Example These leaders create a winning field through effective planning, decision making and team working thereby rendering productivity in each of the different business units of the company. Thus McDonald’s works on the management model of employee empowerment in empowering the individuals to take business and customer servicing decisions on their own (Daft and Marcic 441). Management Structure The organizational or management structure of the firm reflected large amount of decentralization which is focused in the Organic Approach. The organic approach reflects that organizations working in a decentralized fashion turns all the more complex in nature. It is observed that McDonald’s through the decentralized approach helped the individual business units to become business leaders on their own. These units spread along various regions of the world need to be managed in an integrated fashion by the central head quarters of the company. These units also differentiated largely bas ed on varying tastes and cultures and hence needed to mutually adjust their needs so as to fit the corporate culture of the business organization. Henceforth it is observed that the organic structure of McDonald’s is highly complex and decentralized in fashion. Further the units in such management structure become highly differentiated and thus needs to be closely integrated with the corporate philosophy (Hill and Jones, 427). Culture of the Company The culture of McDonald’s are composed of a diversified variety of people belonging to different regions of the world. Diversified organizational culture also emanates owing to the varying tastes of the consumers pertaining to such regions. The company in order to address the needs of such people belonging to diversified cultures is found to change their organizational policies. Thus the company changes both the product and servicing policies in order to fit both the western and Asian cultures in a simultaneous fashion (Sta nford). Mercedes Benz Model of Management Mercedes Benz mainly operates based on the philosophy of management innovation. The company in order to gain enhanced market share in the different nations works to innovate newer business processes and to produce newer designs. The process of innovation helps the company to meet the changing needs of the consumers and thereby adapts to the changing scenarios and periods. Working on the innovation process the company decided to open up overseas branches and also incorporated the business model of acquiring other automobile firms in foreign countries. These policies and innovative models helped in enhancing the potential of the automobile manufacturer to compete effectively while operating in foreign countries (Albaum, Duerr and Strandskov 48). Management Structure The study of organizational philosophy of Mercedes Benz reflects that the organization renders increased priority to the model of innovation. The company through the model of innov ation works in meeting the changing needs of the consumers based along different periods and regions. Mercedes Benz to foster such innovation works on a decentralized fashion. The people pertaining to the different units are granted the power to make

Collaborative Team Meetings and Collaboration Techniques Essay

Collaborative Team Meetings and Collaboration Techniques - Essay Example There are several elements that must be present in a collaborative team meeting. One of these elements is participation and leadership (Schied 2010). Members of the collaborative team must at all times view themselves as equals. This helps in encouraging and supporting participation. The person with the greatest expertise is normally assumes the role of leader or facilitator. In some cases however, leadership is held by the members in rotation. This is commonly the case when the tasks to be performed are repetitive with members holding responsibilities jointly. The facilitator must be unbiased in the meeting to avoid being regarded as a manipulator. Another element of the collaborative meeting is the establishment of collaborative strategies and goals according to Mcie (1999). Goals and strategies to be achieved by the team must be developed through cooperation. Ensuring that the members of the team understand the goals help in keeping the team on track and helps in directing the teams activities and decision making. Decision making is one thing that cannot be avoided in collaborative team meetings according to (Pascale, 2008). Decision making is a joint responsibility, such decisions being made by consensus. Having consensus as opposed to voting ensures that the decisions made by the team are agreed on by members of the group. Without good communication, decisions cannot be made in a group setting. Collaborative meetings involve communication in which cases members of the team are encouraged to open up and express themselves freely without regard to the extent to which other members will agree with their opinions (Mcie, 1999). Whenever the collaborative team is faced with an issue, brainstorming is applied to come up with possible solutions (Pascale, 2008). The ideas that members in the meeting come up with are noted down and discussed as the meeting progresses. Since

How Information Technology has Improved Management Process Research Paper

How Information Technology has Improved Management Process - Research Paper Example Following are some definitions. As described by Nirav S., management processes are defined as those processes which are performed by managers. Managers are commonly involved in planning, organizing, directing, motivating, controlling and decision-making. (Nirav, 2012) Management processes can be of many types and have many aspects attached to them. Information Technology: As per the free dictionary, Information Technology is defined as the development, installation, and implementation of computer systems and applications. (â€Å"Information Technology†, 2009) Information technology has affected organization and organization processes in many ways. It has changed the basic management approach by enabling them to access data from multiple sources at one time and then use this data in their basic functions of planning, controlling, decision making, leadership etc. As laid down by Eatock, Paul and Serrano in their research paper IT is considered one of the most important enablers of process change. (Eatock, Paul & Serrano, 2000) As described by Garvin there are three approaches to organization processes explained in the table below. EXHIBIT 1 An Organizational Processes Framework Work Processes Behavioral Processes Change Processes Definition Sequences of activities that transform inputs into outputs. Widely shared patterns of behavior and ways of acting / interacting. Sequences of events over time. Role Accomplish the work of the organization. Infuse and shape the way work is conducted by influencing how individuals and groups behave. Alter the scale, character, and identity of the organization. Major Categories Operational and administrative. Individual and personal. Autonomous and induced, incremental and revolutionary. Examples New product development, order fulfillment, strategic planning. Decision making, communication, organizational learning. Creation, growth, transformation, and decline. (Garvin, 1998) Management Processes In this part the managemen t processes are discussed in detail and a step by step approach to management processes before and after the implementation of Information Technology is discussed and compared so as to arrive at the advantages Information Technology has brought for the managers in carrying out the main management processes and decisions. There can be many types of management process like work processes, behavioral processes, and change process. However, all the said management processes are undertaken in the same step by step approach. As highlighted by Garvin, common examples of processes include new-product development, order fulfillment, and customer service; less obvious but equally legitimate candidates are resource allocation and decision making. (Garvin, 1998)

Karl Marx & Political Life Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Karl Marx & Political Life - Term Paper Example It was these that guided these revolutionaries in their struggles to change the status quo and introduce a new system in society. At the core of Marxist ideas is the tool of analysis that is to be used in understanding the essential features of society. The Marxist social analysis is actually the most essential principle behind the socialist ideology. Without social analysis, it is apparently impossible to discover the factors that could lead to the progress of society from one historical stage to another. Without it, the leadership of such movements for change would not be able to identify the motive forces as well as those that would seek to maintain the status quo. As a social scientist, Marx was among the first to articulate that to understand society, it is necessary to focus on the material basis of its existence, the economy. He actually began his investigations of society by first understanding the dynamics of capitalist economy, particularly its mode of production. It was th rough his observations in the relationship among the people involved in production that he was able to formulate a theory about social classes and the political structure arising from it. Therefore, Marx does not consider politics as independent from economic life. Instead, he considers it to be a reflection of the relations in production. At the same time, however, he also explains that the nature of the economy can also be altered by changes in politics. Even as Marx formulated a social theory that eventually led to the organization and mobilization of the working class for social change, he was not a worker himself. A lawyer by training and education, he belonged to the middle class. Therefore, it was impossible for him develop the political standpoint and ideological viewpoint of the proletariat. However, he was drawn to socialist ideas and was also a Hegelian; both of which were contributing factors to his determination in learning about the potential elements that could lead t o radical social transformation. As a socialist, Marx appreciated the benefits of a society where there are no distinctions based on wealth and participation on labor. As a Hegelian, he was also very interested in discovering dialectics in society; the contradictions that could lead to change. Aside from being a socialist and a Hegelian, Marx also upheld the principal aspects of political economy as articulated by Adam Smith and David Ricardo, especially in the concept that the wealth of society originates from the combination of nature and human labor. All these were vital to the development of Marx’s systematic theory. Inspired by his socialist principles and Hegelian-influenced methods of analysis, Marx went on to investigate the mode of production. As a result of his investigation he concluded that â€Å"the increasing value of the world of things proceeds in direct proportion to the devaluation of the world of men† and that labor produces not only commodities; it also produces itself and the worker as a commodity – and does so in the proportion in which it produces commodities generally.† (Marx 43) As the working class reproduces itself, individuals who are not involved in labor but are related to production emerge. These are the capitalists or the bourgeoisie; the class whose existence is based on the appropriation of a certain percentage of the wealth created by

Nursing Research Article Review Worksheet Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Nursing Article Review Worksheet - Research Paper Example Moreover, will music therapy to able to display the same ameliorating effects as it has done for other patients dealing with pain management? As music therapy has had a demonstrable effect in lessening the pain of many patients that suffer from other forms of disease, it is the goal of the research to determine if the same can be said for those patients who are suffering from breast cancer. The theoretical framework hinges upon the fact that music therapy has been demonstrably proven to reduce the prevalence of pain within other patients. As such, the researchers are acutely interested to see if such a theoretical framework can extend to their research group/question. In this way although the research questions are of a relatively complex nature, the theoretical framework within which the research is housed is quite simple. The article itself is highly quantitative as it seeks to understand the total benefits that music therapy will affect on the cancer patients through determinate and metricized system of quantifiable measurements. Furthermore, the consecutive and logical grouping of the data helps the analyst not only to quickly recognize the piece’s overall quantitative merit but also to rapidly draw inference from the numbers and statistics

IT Component in MIS Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

IT Component - Research Paper Example When employed in an organization, management information systems transform the dynamics employed by the organization in order to operate efficiently. One of the main advantages of MIS is decentralization. MIS makes it possible for the operations of the organization to be monitored at low levels and goes further to free resources used by department managers while devoting time to strategic plans and actions. Such a system ensures specialized projects are well coordinated and the decision makers are well informed of the problems and issues in different departments. MIS also reduces information overload which is common in conventional businesses. In my organization, MIS was designed in such a way that it was in a position to effectively aggregate information, monitor the activities of the organization and enhanced collaboration as well as communication among employees. The above led to better planning within the organization and enabled the management to come up with means of measuring performances, facilitate compliance and manage resources according to government and industry regulations. The control achieved through the employment of MIS also helps in the accurate budgets preparations, forecasting and offers vital tools and information to business partners, top management and employees. The main aim of adapting MIS in my organization was to come up with processed and synthesized information from manual systems as well as computerized systems. By doing this, information was easily distributed to different levels of professionals and corporate managers making key executives become seamless in relation to the streamlined MIS. The system places the managers in such a position that they are able to make decisions that are informed, quick and timely.  

Consider the cross cultural management implications for a UK manager Essay

Consider the cross cultural management implications for a UK manager undertaking an international business assignment to another country (of your choice) - Essay Example As a result, the concept of cross-cultural management is gaining popularity in the modern world. Managing across cultures is a product of globalisation (Dierks, 2001) such that, an expatriate from a foreign culture moves to a totally new culture and is required to manage people from diverse cultural backgrounds. Many people who have moved to new cultures or societies have experienced challenges. Although majority has succeeded, some have found it difficult and failed in their international duties. Managing across cultures requires those involved to adjust to numerous conflicting or competing cultural needs, while at the same time maintaining their culture. In this regard, one has to increase efforts of understanding other people’s cultures, their way of doing things, their way of management, and also how such people do things in general (Magala, 2005). Understanding culture has become important to international companies and managers operating in different countries. This report looks at the management journey of an international manager from United Kingdom, who is sent on an international mission in USA and has to carry out international duties in one of the multinational companies in the country. The report will explore and discuss management problems and challenges likely to be experienced by the manager as reflected in the cultures of the two countries. Furthermore, there would be discussion on the best ways through which the manager can ensure he or she fits well in the new environment and culture. Different nations around the world have different cultures. The differences in cultures have influenced different nations to manifest little similarities and huge dissimilarities. Cultures of different societies have played important roles, which may include cultures acting as mechanisms in societies that allow maintenance of stability across many generations (Hofstede, 2001). Culture is seen as the value system of a given society where majority of

Part of a Marketing Plan Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Part of a Marketing Plan - Assignment Example Cotton On is one of the few organically Australian ready-to-wear (RTW) fashion label. Fairly young in the industry at less than 30 years old, they now have shops all over Australia, New Zealand, and America. It has uniquely mirrored the same image that Australia has project all over the world, relax, simple and comfortable. Its primary target is the youth, 15-30, who feels wants a simple no-nonsense style that is flexible yet fashionable. Through the years, there have been constant effort from the brand to reinforce their image through TV commercials, print ads, and out-of-home advertisements. However, the fashion industry has witnessed an incredible shift of media consumption from traditional to digital. Many of this digital adaptors belong to the same target market that Cotton On caters to, young from the broad C. Many businesses have taken advantage of this by, early on, exerting the same effort digitally as they do above the line. Unfortunately, Cotton On came in late. They, in fact, established their online store less than three years ago. Outside of the online store, very little effort has been exerted to utilize the digital media to reach the Cotton On target market. This lack of digital presence resulted to one of the biggest digital scandal in the business world when facebook members started spreading complaints and protests against Cotton On Children’s line. The protest claimed that Cotton On’s pieces contained â€Å"disrespectful† messages. One word. That’s all it takes for a person to know someone inside and out, its history, its sensibilities, its personality, and its relationships. That word is the brand name. Coca-Cola. iPod. Nike. Google. Their identities are so strong and so embedded to the minds of the consumers that no single study, perhaps not even a compound of a thousand, can comprehensively explain how each company built it. Cotton On, despite being a young label, has experienced a certain

Organizational Structures Essay Example for Free

Organizational Structures Essay Organizations function in varied ways. Each organization is unique in its own accord and its overall design depends on two main criteria; coordination and communication. No matter what structure an organization chooses, the ultimate result is to achieve coordination between units and communicate effectively for proper decision making and implementation. The current buzz word being the networked economy and organizations, many firms are becoming more sophisticated and evolving into more interconnected entities than ever before. It is important however to note that not one single structure is the most successful one. A firms arrival at a decision to adopt a certain structure entails careful analysis of the requirements of the industry it operates in. Then only can it decide which structure suits it best. Dell, based in the US, is a truly global organization. With lead times of delivery ranging in days across the globe, Dell had no choice but to adapt a structure which complimented its nimble and lean supply chain. This resulted in them adopting a networked structure as opposed to more traditional functional setup. The main criterion is not coordination here, but the proper channels of communication which are necessary to deliver information is the cheapest, fastest and most reliable way. Moreover, product life cycles of Dell are shorter than most other products and this again meant a quick supply chain backed by the most efficient communications strategy. Dell has been able to adopt this structure quicker and has grown to an extent which many never expected it to achieve (Sviokla, 2004). Dell does have departments and functions like any other organizations; it’s the method by which they operate which is different. Each function is coordinated and communicates to achieve one primary goal; deliver the good to the customer in the shortest time possible. By having a networked organization, information travels at nearly the speed of light and decisions are thus made in a shorter time. This is what Dell required to stay on top of its competition in the PC industry and thus, it adopted the best possible structure within the industry. Toyota, based in Japan, is a name of reliability. Their automobiles are well known for cost effectiveness and long life. All this was only achieved by the top notch structure that Toyota eventually evolved into over its long history. The work at Toyota is done by divisions; teams of individuals in each ‘function’ operating on assembly lines to produce cars. This along with a just in time inventory approach has enabled Toyota to become a truly global automobile maker and trendsetter in the industry. Till Toyota adopted it, JIT was something that many, especially in the automobile industry, wouldn’t dare to emulate. Toyota realized how its inventory, being huge and with long lead times would clog up work space and result in huge costs due to rental, obsolescence etc. Thus Toyota did what Dell did but in a different manner, let the supplier remain the owner of the materials until they are needed. This called for not just a good communications setup but an exceptional coordinated effort by the firms various functions as well. A delay in one function meant a halt in the whole firm as each is dependent on the other. Thus Toyota needed a structure which was stable, coordinated and yet, able to communicate well with its suppliers as well as dealers. This came in the form of an organization which was capable of dissipating knowledge throughout its firm effectively and acts upon decisions made quickly (Choo, 2002). This means that Toyota is a matrix organization rather than a functional one which one might think it is at first glance. Secondly, it various factories internationally could be seen as SBU’s (Strategic Business Units) working autonomously yet liked to a central point. Reference http://www.analytictech.com/mb021/orgtheory.htm

Psychological Effects of Imprisonment on Young Offenders

Psychological Effects of Imprisonment on Young Offenders The aim of this dissertation is to examine the claim of authors such as Harrington and Bailey (2005) that a substantial proportion of young offenders in the UK suffer from severe mental illness. In accepting this claim, the secondary aim of this paper is to glean a greater understanding of why this is the case; do these offenders acquire mental illness as a result of the modern prison regime and regardless, why is the modern youth justice system so ineffective in dealing with this seemingly widespread problem? The researcher of this paper shall argue that the currentyouth justice system needs, if it to achieve one of its primary aims,namely to rehabilitate youth offenders and prevent them from becomingrecidivists, to focus their research and practice more heavily on thepsychological processes which cause a young person to offend, so thatsuch offenders, who are clearly suffering from mental problems, can bemore easily identified and, where possible, positively helped toresolve these issues whilst they are serving their custodial sentencesso that upon release these individuals are more likely to desist fromcriminality. The principle methodology of this paper will be a literature review,a review of both primary and secondary sources from the subject fieldsof forensic psychology, criminology and penology. Introduction: The primary issue which will be raised and explored throughout thisdissertation is the contention that the current youth justice system,and in particular the youth prison system, is failing to adequatelyaddress the psychological needs (or as they are described by manycriminologists: ‘criminogenic needs’) of youth offenders in the UK.Such an argument necessarily involves a simultaneous examination notonly of the statistics which are available regarding the prevalence ofmental illness in youth prisons and the rates of recidivism of thoseyouths who have been previously sentenced to immediate custody, butalso an examination of the latest psychological research in prisons,the current (and, to a lesser extent, historical) policies andpractices pertaining to the ‘treatment’ of those imprisoned offenderswho have been diagnosed with mental illness and also the writings ofexpert researchers in these relevant fields who provide originalinterpretative insights into the problems associated with mentalillness in youth offenders and potential approaches to minimise thisapparent epidemic. The structure of this review shall take the following form: Thisdissertation will commence with a brief overview of past and presentsystems of caring for children serving custodial sentences and howtheir mental health needs were and are now met, including anexamination of the changing definition of ‘needs’ in this context. Theresearcher, using research from government enquires, literature andreports concerned with this issue will then seek to identify thoseyouth justice policies and practices which are apparently ineffectiveand/or inappropriate in reducing this problem and, in conclusion, makerecommendations for future necessary/ effective reforms and also futureresearch which should be conducted to assist in our understanding ofthe psychological causes of crime and to assist in the formulation ofsuch reforms. The researcher of this paper is greatly interested in the subject ofthis paper: After reading in Society Guardian articles about our youngprison population the researcher was surprised to learn that there areover 11,000 young people between 15-20 in jail in England and Waleswith a diagnosable mental disorder, that 10% will suffer a severepsychotic disorder in comparison with 0.2% of the general populationand that the UK has the highest number of prisoners under 21, incomparison with the rest of Europe, 3000 of them being held in youthoffenders institutes. Similar surprise ensued from discover of researchconducted by the UK Office for National Statistics which found thatnine out of ten youth offenders in the UK suffer from a mentaldisorder. The researcher feels strongly that more research needs to beconducted into these issues so that these worrying findings can bediluted; it is primarily for this reason that the researcher has chosento conduct this research on that topic. Intending t o pursue a career inthe youth justice system working with young offenders in the UK, theresearcher also feels strongly that a deeper substantive knowledge inthis area will aid not merely his professional development but also hisability to help reduce the incidence of mental disorder in the UK youthjustice system. The researcher concedes that the objectives of this research didchange direction at various points of the review: Initially, the aimwas to identify the current practical failings of the youth justicesystem and to convincingly demonstrate that these failings directly orindirectly contribute to the problematic prevalence of mental illnessin youth offenders and to likewise suggest practical reforms whichshould be employed to reduce this phenomenon; latterly, the researcherunderstood that rather than suggesting changes in practical reform thathe should attempt to identify the failings in the current research andthe strategies employed by the justice system, and to suggestalternative strategies and ideas for future research which will then inturn result in more effective justice practice. The structure of this paper, as described in paragraph two of thisintroduction, has been carefully constructed to complement itsarguments: the historical analysis of trends in UK penal policy andpractice (pertaining to youth offenders) over the past fifty years,with which this paper will commence, provides ample support for thelater contention that the current approach employed by the youthjustice system in the UK to reduce the incidence of mental illness inits prisons is inadequate and also for those policy reforms which willbe recommended by the researcher in this paper’s conclusions. The Structure of the Literature Review: As noted previously in the introduction, above, the literaturereview of this paper will not confine itself to any one particulardiscipline; after all, the subjects of criminology, forensicpsychology, social work and, to some extent, penology are havededicated varying proportions of their research on the issues withwhich this paper is concerned; namely the prevalence of mental illnessin young offenders in the UK Youth Justice system, in particular thoseoffenders currently serving custodial sentences in young offendersinstitutes, and practical methods for reducing this problematicphenomenon. A clear concern to any researcher conducting amulti-disciplinary literature review of this kind is that the order ofthe analysis is prone to be confusing; a researcher could choose toperform a separate review of the literature from each respectivesubject area or, alternatively, a researcher might choose to make nosuch division but rather separate the review into the relevantquestions and under each separate heading utilize the literature fromany relevant discipline in no particular order. The researcher of thispaper has chosen to adopt the latter of these two approaches; he feelsthat to divide the review analysis according to topic area is whollyartificial, especially in light of the fact that any research orliterature which will be discussed will be wholly relevant to the sameissues pertaining to young offenders. With this methodological approach in mind, the questions which thisliterature review will seek to discuss and, where possible, answer, areas follows: 1] What is defined as ‘mental illness’ and how has this definition changed over the past 60 years? 2] How prevalent is mental illness in young offenders who arecurrently serving custodial sentences in young offenders’ institutes inthe UK? 3] To what extent is this a recent phenomenon? And to what extent isthis a phenomenon which is particular to young offenders serving asentence in a secure institution rather than to those young offenderswho are serving non-custodial sentences or those young persons who havenot been involved in the Youth Justice system at all? 4] Historically, how has the UK Youth Justice System responded tothe problem of mental illness in young offenders who are currentlyserving custodial sentences in young offenders’ institutes? 5] Is there convincing evidence which suggests that there is linkbetween this prevalence of mental illness and the high rates ofrecidivism in young offenders serving custodial sentences? 6] What is the approach which is currently employed by the UK Youth Justice System to tackle this problem? 7] To what extent is the current policy approach of the UK YouthJustice System appropriate in achieving its objectives in this regard? 8] How is this policy approach being implemented by the UK Youth Justice System? 9] Are these practical reforms appropriate in light of the policyapproach adopted to reduce the incidence of mental illness in youthoffenders in the UK? 10] What changes should be made to the current policy and practiceof the UK Youth Justice System to effect a more successful reduction ofthis problem? 11] What further academic research is needed to assist in the formulation of these new policies and practices? 1] What is defined as ‘mental illness’ or ‘mental health’ and how has this definition changed over the past 60 years? Any literature review on the prevalence of ‘mental illness’ in aparticular population, in this case young offenders serving custodialsentences, would be incomplete without a preliminary discussionpertaining to the definition of ‘mental illness’ or ‘mental health’ inthat context. Within the context of young offenders, it is interesting to notethat there is very little consistency in the definition of ‘mentalhealth’: In fact, ‘a review of over 60 national and local education,health and social care documents (policy, strategy and guidance)revealed little consistency within, as well as, across agencies. Therewere 10 different terms or phrases used to label the positive end ofthe mental health continuum and 15 to describe the negative’ [JointCommissioning Strategy for Child and Adolescent Mental Health Servicesin Kent, Draft Report, 15th January 2007, p6]. This having been said, it does not seem that the definition of ‘mentalhealth’ in this context is particularly contentious. The Kent andMedway Multi Agency CAMHS Strategy Group have provided a workingdefinition which incorporates each of the individual definitions foundduring their literature review of relevant policy documents: ‘Mentalhealth can be defined as: The ability to develop psychologically,emotionally, intellectually and spiritually, to initiate, develop andsustain mutually satisfying personal relationships, including theability to become aware of others and to empathise with them, and theability to use psychological distress as a developmental process, sothat it does not hinder or impair further development’ [JointCommissioning Strategy for Child and Adolescent Mental Health Servicesin Kent, Draft Report, 15th January 2007, p6].   However, to find a comprehensive definition of ‘mental illness’ in thiscontext is not so straightforward: It would seem that practitioners inthe field of forensic psychology have divided mental ill-health intothree separate categories separated on the basis of severity ofsymptoms; namely, ‘mental health problems’, ‘mental health disorders’and ‘mental illness’. Mental health problems, the least serious form of mental ill-health,‘may be reflected in difficulties and/or disabilities in the realms ofpersonal relationships, psychological development, the capacity forplay and learning and in distress and maladaptive behaviour. They arerelatively common, and may or may not be persistent’ [JointCommissioning Strategy for Child and Adolescent Mental Health Servicesin Kent, Draft Report, 15th January 2007, p6]. Mental health disorder is the term subscribed to those persons whoare suffering from persistent mental health problems which affect theirfunctioning on a day-to-day basis. Whilst most young people will atsome stage in their development suffer from mental health problems, itis not normal to expect such persons to suffer from mental healthdisorders. As noted by the Kent and Medway Multi Agency CAMHS StrategyGroup, mental health disorder, as a term, ‘[implies] a marked deviationfrom normality, a clinically recognised set of symptoms or behaviourassociated in most cases with considerable distress and substantialinterference with personal functions or development’ [JointCommissioning Strategy for Child and Adolescent Mental Health Servicesin Kent, Draft Report, 15th January 2007, p6]. Finally, mental illness, the most serious of the three forms ofmental ill-health, can be recognized in those young persons sufferingfrom severe clinical psychosis or neurosis, e.g. those suffering fromschizophrenia. These definitions provide a clear and useful taxonomy from which wecan begin to analyse the statistics on the prevalence of mentalill-health in young offenders in the UK. However, before we commencethis analysis, it is first important to briefly examine the perceivedhistorical relationship between mental ill-health and crime ; afterall, it has often been the case in the past that societies across theworld have attributed certain (if not all) aspects of criminality tosymptoms of mental ill-health, in particular mental disorder and mentalillness. For example, The USSR during the Cold War often incarceratedpolitical ‘criminals’ on the basis that they must be mentally insanefor holding such opinions and beliefs. Whilst the above example would shock most people of today, thisphenomenon is not that far removed from how the UK government hastraditionally treated the mentally ill: ‘In the UK, mental health carewas for decades provided only in large ‘asylums’ keeping ‘mentallyill’ people out of society believing this to be for their own good andthat of their communities. Beginning in the 1950s and accelerating atthe end of the 1980s, government policy switched to providing moreservices in the community and in most cases limiting hospital treatmentto when it is needed most acutely’ [All-Party Parliamentary Group onPrison Health, House of Commons, November 2006, p2]. In light of the fact that historically the mentally ill have beendealt with in the same way as convicted criminals, it is not toodifficult to understand why there has developed a publicly perceivedlink between mental illness and criminality. This misconception hasalso been given weight by a small number of brutal homicide cases inwhich the perpetrator was schizophrenic; whilst social workers andpsychiatrists of today realise that schizophrenia does not necessarilycause its owners to be criminally violent, public opinion is still notas understanding: ‘Our understanding of mental ill health has†¦developed [since] that time, though public debate on the topic has notalways been in step†¦ the popular assumption that mental ill health andcriminality are inextricably linked needs to be broken and policyinformed by a deeper understanding of the complex links between mentalill health and offending’ [All-Party Parliamentary Group on PrisonHealth, House of Commons, Novemb er 2006, p2]. Therefore, whilst theremay be certain links between mental ill-health and criminality, thereis no intuitive similarity between these two respective phenomena. 2] How prevalent is mental ill-health in young offenders who arecurrently serving custodial sentences in young offenders’ institutes inthe UK? N.B. At the outset of this section of the literature review it isimportant to remind ourselves that secondary reviews of primary datacan often be misleading or, worse, erroneous. For example, to quote asection from the website of the government’s ‘Crime Reduction Toolkit‘A recent report by the Office for National Statistics, PsychiatricMorbidity Among Young Offenders, found that 9 in 10 young offendersaged between 16-20 years old showed evidence of mental illness’. Thisstatement would, using the taxonomy of mental ill-health discussed insection [1] above, appear to suggest that 90% of young offenders in UKPrisons are suffering from severe psychiatric illnesses such aschizophrenia: such a contention is clearly erroneous as if this werethe case then 90% of young offenders in Prison should in fact not be inprison at all but rather in secure mental hospitals. What the statementshould have said is: ‘A recent report by the Office for NationalStatistics, Psyc hiatric Morbidity Among Young Offenders, found that 9in 10 young offenders aged between 16-20 years old showed evidence ofmental ill-health’. Hopefully this example has shown how careful onemust be when attempting to describe or analyse the data findings fromprimary research. All of the literature and research supports the contention thatmental ill-health among young offenders in UK Prisons is prevalent. Arecent Report suggests that â€Å"Young people in prison have an evengreater prevalence of poor mental health than adults, with 95% havingat least one mental health problem and 80% having more than one. [Laderet al., 2000, cited by Sainsbury Centre for Mental Health, March 2006,p3]†. This same conclusion is reported by Singleton et al. (1998): ‘95per cent of young prisoners aged 15 to 21 suffer from a mentaldisorder. 80 per cent suffer from at least two. Nearly 10 per cent offemale sentenced young offenders reported already having been admittedto a mental hospital at some point.’ A more recent research study conducted by Professor RichardHarrington and Professor Sue Bailey on behalf of the Youth JusticeBoard, entitled ‘Mental Health Needs and Effectiveness of Provision forYoung Offenders in Custody and in the Community’, found thatapproximately 33% of the young offenders sampled had at least onemental health need, approximately 20% suffered from clinicaldepression, approximately 10% of these young offenders had a history ofself-harm   and approximately 10% suffered from post traumatic stressdisorder and severe anxiety . This study also found that approximately5% of the young offenders sampled had symptoms indicative of clinicalpsychosis and that 7% of the sample population seemed to suffer fromhyperactivity. [Harrington and Bailey, 2005]. In conclusion, it seems indisputable that mental ill-health isprevalent among young offenders in the UK, in particular among thoseyouths serving custodial sentences. 3] To what extent is this a recent phenomenon? And to what extent isthis a phenomenon which is particular to young offenders serving asentence in a secure institution rather than to those young offenderswho are serving non-custodial sentences or those young persons who havenot been involved in the Youth Justice system at all? Whilst there is evidence that even as far back as 200 years ago UKPrisons were occupied to some extent by persons who suffered frommental problems, disorders and illness [Thomas Holmes, 1900], it isdifficult to ascertain whether this was due to the same reasons whichcause the phenomenon today, or whether these offenders were simply putin prison because of their mental ill-health, a practice which, asdiscussed above, was common in the nineteenth century. Unfortunately,in regards to the historical po sition, this is not a problem which canever be easily resolved, and it is a question which is still relevantto a discussion of the phenomenon of today: Is the prevalence of mentalill-health among young prisoners due to their treatment within theyouth justice system or did these individuals suffer mental ill-healthprior to their involvement with the justice system? Hagell (2002) p37 suggests that mental ill-health is more prevalent inyoung offenders than in their law-abiding peers, but this still doesnot answer the question of whether the reason that these individualsbroke the law in the first place was because of their mental problems,disorders or illness: â€Å"there is little doubt that young people caughtup in the criminal justice system do have elevated rates of mentalhealth problems when compared to other adolescents. A conservativeestimate would suggest that the rates of mental illness in these youngpeople is three times as high as that for their peers.† Likewise, an article by Sir David Ramsbotham entitled ‘The Needs ofOffending Children in Prison’, which was published in the Report fromthe Conference of the Michael Sieff Foundation entitled ‘The Needs ofOffending Children’, at p19, that whilst 95% of young offenders incustody are suffering from mental ill-health, only 10% of the generalpopulation are suffering from such problems, disorders or illnesses. This finding is supported in result, if not precise figures, by aresearch study which was conducted by the Mental Health Foundationentitled: The Mental Health of Young Offenders. Bright Futures: Workingwith Vulnerable Young People [Hagell, 2002]. This study stated:â€Å"Despite methodological hindrances, it is clear from this review of theliterature that there is a consensus that young people who offend arelikely to have much higher than usual levels of mental health problems.Estimates from research studies suggest that the rates of problems wereapproximately three ti mes as high as for their peers in the generalpopulation. In general, the mental health needs of young offenders arethe same as those of the general adolescent population but more acute.†[Hagell, 2002, p28]. Regarding whether the prison regime itself is responsible for thisprevalence, or merely the fact of incarceration, a study by Nicol et al(2000) found that there was very little difference between the levelsof mental needs in those young persons held in prison and those held inother forms of welfare establishment. This implies that the same mentalproblems, disorders and illnesses which lead a young person to beincarcerated in a welfare institution are also present in those youngoffenders who break the law and are subsequently sentences toimprisonment. A study commissioned by the Youth Justice Board [Harrington andBailey, 2005, p8] seemed to suggest that the mental needs of youngpersons were reduced as a result of being sent to Prison: â€Å"Youngoffenders in the community were found to have significantly more needsthan those in secure care†¦Needs increased for young offendersdischarged from secure facilities back into the community, suggestingthat needs are only temporarily reduced while in custody. In conclusion, there is no doubt that the prevalence of mentalill-health amongst young incarcerated offenders is not a newphenomenon, although it is impossible to state with any certaintywhether this phenomenon is worse now than it ever has been in historypreviously. Regarding whether this phenomenon is particular to youthoffenders over their law-abiding peers, it would seem that it iscertainly more pronounced with this former group, but also with thoseoffenders serving community sentences and those young persons who arebeing held in welfare establishments. 4] Historically, how has the UK Youth Justice System responded to theproblem of mental illness in young offenders who are currently servingcustodial sentences in young offenders’ institutes? As noted earlier, ‘In the UK, mental health care was for decadesprovided only in large ‘asylums’ keeping ‘mentally ill’ people out ofsociety believing this to be for their own good and that of theircommunities. Beginning in the 1950s and accelerating at the end of the1980s, government policy switched to providing more services in thecommunity and in most cases limiting hospital treatment to when it isneeded most acutely’ [All-Party Parliamentary Group on Prison Health,House of Commons, November 2006, p2]. During the 1950’s and 1960’s the link between mental ill-health andcriminality had arguably never been stronger; all prisoners wereregarded as patients who could be effectively ‘treated’ to prevent themfrom re-offending in the future and whilst little specific attentionwas paid to the individual mental needs of offenders, the types oftreatment reforms which were offered by the Criminal Justice System atthis time were very similar to the kinds of group treatment therapiesbeing offered to those mentally disordered and mentally ill patients inthe mental asylums and hospitals of the day. During the 1970’s thisparadigm of offender treatment was abandoned primarily as a result ofresearch studies conducted into the success of some of these treatmentreforms: conclusions from several research studies into theeffectiveness of these criminal treatments on reducing criminalbehaviour strongly suggested that ‘nothing works’ (Thomas-Peter, 2006,p29). T hese embarrassing findings caused the pendulum to swing awayfrom rehabilitation towards a firmer commitment to incapacitation andpunishment through positive custody. During the 1980’s, the wave of ‘new public management’ was born(Thomas-Peter, 2006, p30). This movement focussed heavily upon theprocedural roles of the Prison and Probation Services in reducingre-offending. The Prison service started to contract out some of theirprimary responsibilities in a quest to encourage more efficient servicefrom both their private sub-contractors and also their remaining statePrisons who would have to meet their performance targets to avoid beingprivatised in the same way as so many other Institutions had been.Likewise, the Probation service was reorganised and reintegrated toencourage greater efficiency of performance: ‘[The Probation Service,rather than] a loosely co-ordinated collection of individual socialworkers [became a unified and managed service] with a clearer sense ofdirection and purpose, which was more able to engage on equal termswith other services and to contribute and give effect to nationalpolicies’ (Faulkne r, 2007, p7). During the 1990’s researchers revisited the studies conducted in the1970’s and found that rather than demonstrating that ‘nothing works’,rather they supported the contention that certain types of treatmentinitiatives were working with certain types of individuals: Whilst only10% of a group may have responded well to that treatment, if thesimilarities between those responding offenders could be identifiedthen for this new group, the reform could be said to be verysuccessful. This has lead researchers such as Harper and Chitty (2005)to argue that the new question should not be ‘what works?’ but ‘whatworks for whom, and why’? This paradigm shall be discussed in greaterdetail in section [6] of this literature review. It is important to note that, except for the changes made to theProbation Services in the 1980’s, the above discussion summarizes thedevelopments in the paradigm of Criminal Justice generally and does notspecifically answer the question of how the Criminal Justice system hashistorically dealt with the problem of mental ill-health in youngimprisoned offenders. The fact is that even as late as 2002, there was no real unifiedsystem implemented to deal specifically with this particular problem.Research on this topic was sparse and focused rather than on nationalstrategies, on local remedies such as the pioneering work done by theAdolescent Forensic Services in the Midlands. Generally, where YoungOffenders Institutions were involving forensic psychiatrists or mentalhealth social workers this was not being done with the aim of treatmentor rehabilitation but rather for the purposes of assessment. Also,rather than assessing each young offender, these processes tended to beused for those offenders who were clearly suffering from mentalill-health and those offenders who specifically asked for suchassistance. A report published by the Mental Health Foundation in 2002,entitled ‘The Mental Health of Young Offenders. Bright Futures: Workingwith Vulnerable Young People’ [Hagell, 2002, p23] summarized theposition at that time in the followin g way: â€Å"As far as the MentalHealth Foundation is aware, there is no recent research data availableon the provision of psychological and psychiatric services to youngoffenders across the criminal justice system. However, at the time ofwriting it is clear that, from existing fragmented information, thereis no routine, standardised screening employed across the criminaljustice system and that responses to problems are inadequate andfragmented.† Whilst it is true that certain practical initiatives were introducedfrom the mid-nineties, such as Youth Offending Teams, Detention andTraining Orders, Parenting Orders and Child Safety Orders, thediscussion of the effects of these reforms shall be reserved forsections [6] and [9] of this literature review, in which we shallanalyse the current policy and practical approach employed by the YouthJustice System in dealing with the problem of prevalent mentalill-health among young prisoners. 5] Is there convincing evidence which suggests that there is linkbetween mental illness and the likelihood of being sentenced toimmediate custody? Is there convincing evidence which suggests thatthere is link between mental illness and the prevalence of mentalillness and the high rates of recidivism in young offenders servingcustodial sentences? One would be right to question the relevance of this enquiry to themain purposes of this research paper; after all the objective of thispaper is to examine the current strategy in dealing with the problem ofmental ill-health in young offenders institutes and to proposerecommendations for future clinical research and immediate reform.However, the researcher of this paper has chosen to dedicate a sectionof its literature review to the issues raised in the title of thissection because he feels that, if a convincing link between mentalill-health and criminality/criminal recidivism can be demonstrated thenit would provide additional support for the importance of reform inthis area. After all, the youth of today are the adults of the future,and if it can be shown that reducing the prevalence of mentalill-health in young offender institutions has a positive (reducing)effect on the rates of recidivism then the Criminal Justice System maybe compelled to dedicate extra time, money and resource s on furtherresearch in this area and also on the implementation of reformsdesigned to reduce the prevalence of this problem. The first point to note is that there is a body of research whichsuggests that young persons with mental disorders are more likely to bearrested, charged and convicted for their criminal behaviour than thoseyoung people in similar circumstances who do not have such severemental problems [Teplin, 1984]. This is supported by the research studyconducted by Singleton et al (1998) which found that the majority ofprisoners who had been diagnosed as having mental illness had, prior tohaving contact with the Justice System, already had contact with theNHS and other welfare services. These findings cannot be squared easily with the findings of otherresearch studies which suggest that â€Å"further offending [is] notpredicted by mental health needs or alcohol and drug abuse problems.[Harrington and Bailey, 2005, p8]† After all, if mental ill-health canpredict first instance-offending in young persons, then it must alsosurely be a predictor of recidivism in these persons also. Thisresearcher is therefore more inclined to rely upon other researchstudies which suggest that this is not the case: For example, the studyconducted by the Mental Health Foundation [Hagell, 2002, p24] foundthat: The outcomes for young offenders in need of mental healthservices include: further offending and worsening mental healthproblems if the needs are not met. The two are interlinked. While theoffending may have been a risk factor for mental health problems in thefirst place, it has long been understood that mental health problems inturn go on to be a risk factor for continued off ending (Kandel, 1978;Rutter et al 1998). Early detection may reduce the likelihood thatyoung offenders will persist into adulthood.† 6] What is the approach which is currently employed by the UK Youth Justice System to tackle this problem? As discussed earlier

Representation Of Gender In Media Media Essay

Representation Of Gender In Media Media Essay Media plays a great role in changing the world by affecting the way people perceive different aspects of our lives. People tend to believe what they continuously see, and with time they take it as the normal way of life, the way things should be. It is important to ensure that what the media shows or the message it delivers, whether directly or indirectly, is appropriate. The message should reflect the positive side of the societys expectations because with time, whatever is in the media today will start playing in real life. Most scholars have shown that in media, there is a way that each gender is represented, based on the stereotypical nature that the society has classified males and females. Males are strong, tough and powerful, both intellectually and physically as expected by the society and represented by media. Males should dominate and conquer everything and come out victorious. Females on the other hard are supposed to be soft, emotional and caring as well as supportive to those around them as well as their male counterparts. They are to subordinate men and work toward supporting them and making their life comfortable. In gender matters, the role that media has played in influencing peoples perception of the differences between male and female and expectations of each gender is big. The media has shown that women as the weaker ones, whose role is not major unlike the male gender who are strong and fearless and are depicted as the stronger sex. In employment, most employees in the media such as radio and TV are male with the females occupying a lesser percentage. The job roles that women get in the media industry are most of the time junior and offering support. It is rare to find women occupy leadership or senior positions which most are occupied by their male counterparts. In media training colleges, the number of females is slightly above that of males. This notwithstanding, in the job market there are about a third of employees who are females, showing that there is a great gender based bias while recruiting which favors males. This creates an impression that women should not be working. The con tent is another area. Most TV programs or films for example, will have men as the dominant characters and females only as supporting cast with minor roles. In most of the cases, men end up victorious in their leading roles in the productions. The costs of productions of movies with male characters as the leading actor have a higher production budget than those with a female. There is evidence that the more expensive films to produce are more successful and so this favors the male-acted movies more. The role of women as depicted by media is that they are more valuable in their youth and how they exhibit their beauty and sexuality. In media production, whether television programs, film or music videos, females are presented in a demeaning manner from their dressing, roles and character. They show only their sexuality as their greatest asset and potential they have. This makes them, and even men feel that women cannot exhibit their own potential in the job markets or other fields. It d enies them a chance to compete with men, and make them think they can only rely on their sexuality. The type of movies or programs that female actors lead in are the drama and romantic ones while males are involved in action parked productions which show their aggressive nature. This therefore labels females as the soft ones, while the men as the tough ones. Men have left behind women even in the sad event of death; womens deaths rarely get to the obituaries column yet they are as many as men are. In advertisement, women presentation is that of homemakers expected to know the requirement of housekeeping and family. For instance, in an advertisement for a household item such as tissue paper or cooking fat, there is likelihood of a female being questioned or asked to make a statement as an authority. She will not be an authority because she is an experts in use of the respective items but because they are household items, and she is expected to be a homemaker or know how to take care of the home. On the other hand, when advertising a distinguished career or occupation of a high office, it is likely to have a man, which creates in the mind of a girl that she cannot achieve much out there, she is destined to the kitchen. Such bias in packaging media information and presenting the female gender less capable than the males does not help in empowering females. News content does not help matters either. Women are only a focus on a few matters unlike men who dominate business, political and various other news items. This negatively makes girls believe men are the only ones who can make news. This also shows that men occupy those positions of power; making the females doubt their chances and the males think the positions only belong to them. Social media has uplifted the presence of women in media as they are able to relate well and are more active of such sites. Their voices are growing and reaching more people, both males and females. There is however, the problem of gender biasness where some male chauvinists have brought some online campaigns based on female stereotypes which is trying to demean women and bring them in bad light. The media owners and producers should be mindful of the image portrayed in the media as it will either encourage girls and women to play their rightful roles in the society as well empowered and capable individuals or conform to the stereotypes and message that the media portrays. Men will also be in a position to treat women better if there is general message across the media that is empowering women. The message should not be in the content of the news only but also on the representation in the media such as the employees in the whole wide journalism industry. As the society dictates, media often present women as part of a team in their work and thoughts. They take a passive rather than an active role and even as victims in whatever happens in the society. The society expects women to be beautiful but weak and the value of their sexuality enhanced but in a very narrow and stereotypical way. They treated as emotional instead of intellectual and people who create relationships in order to survive instead of being independent. The society castigates those who tend to be independent or exhibit their worth in other areas, and see them as deviant or dangerous for not meeting the societys expectations. O the other hand, the society expects men to be more rigid and strong, both physically and intellectually, and this is how the media present them. They are expected to show power and be independent in their thought and even in their actions and dont rely on others. These media representations serve to paint the society in its real form, and so the media has to conform to ensue the audience identify with them. This may sometimes not be planned but due to how the society is. Such representations make the media seem credible and the male chauvinists have their ego maintained, but at the expense of females who fail to get the right motivation to exploit the full potential in them. With the changing society however, there is a tendency of both men and women finding it hard to live to those expectation of the society due to more empowerment and education on the part of the females on their worth other than the societys expectations of femininity. More female leaders are coming up and this is changing the way they view life with such role models. The toughness of masculinity is also reducing and even the modest of the males such as grooming which was previously considered a feminine thing is now being adapted by males; with even product in the market for them.

The Rivalry between Germany and Britain Essay -- Papers world war one

The Rivalry between Germany and Britain The direct cause of the First World War, the spark that set it off in other words, was the assassination of the Austrian archduke Francis Ferdinand, who was heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, and his wife by a Serbian student in Sarajevo in June 1914. A month later Austria declared war against Serbia. This local warfare brought Russia, Germany and France straight into fight, and in the end got other European Powers such as Britain, and even Japan and America involved thus became a world wide armed conflict. There are many arguments that have been made among historians about grounds of such war. So many theories have been found, and discussed for decades. Yet the controversy has not seen its end and is still growing. Imperialism, militarism, rise of nationalism, and the alliance systems are often named as the major causes. However, when historians come to discuss militarism on this subject, their theme tends to be based around whether or not a sense of rivalry between Germany and Britain was one of the primary causes. The purpose of this paper is answering the essay question above by examining the Anglo-German relations before 1914, and its significance on outbreak of the war. Before start, it should be made clear what it is meant by the words "major cause" in the title above. Examiner's use of the word "major" can be vague. Does she mean the major cause as the factor that has direct and decisive impact upon the incident? If so, the answer to this question is no. The war did not arise originally from between Germany and Britain, and reason for them to join the war, on the surface, appeared to be alliances with the other countries involved. Yet, there is other interpretat... ...y of Europe 1815-1914`. Second Edition. Longman Group Limited. Berghahn, V.R.1987. `Modern Germany`, Society, economy and politics in the twentieth Century. Second Edition. Cambridge University Press. Joll, James. 1990.`Europe Since 1870`, An International History. Forth Edition. Penguin. Larr, Jon. `An Overview of World War 1`. http://members.aol.com/sniper43/worldwar1.html Layton, G.1995. `access to history`, From BISMARCK to HITLER: GERMANY 1890-1933. Hodder & Stoughton. Roberts, J.M.1989. `Europe 1880-1945`, A General History of Europe. Second Edition. Addison Wesley Longman Limited. Wolfson, R. and Laver, J. 1996.`Years of Change, Europe 1890-1945`. Second Edition. Hodder & Stoughton.

The Right to Privacy :: Papers

The Right to Privacy Our country's fathers found themselves in a dilemma ratifying the Constitution. New York, one of the most powerful states, required a Bill of Rights be added before ratification. This was an incredible task for James Madison, the Father of the Constitution. Madison opposed enumerating a Bill of Rights for reasons expressed in the Ninth Amendment. Madison feared the listing of specific rights might be construed as the only rights citizens possessed. He was quite correct in his perception. Advances in technology, such as video cameras, phone taps, and Internet invasion, make privacy a very different issue in the new millennium than it was in 1791. The right to privacy is defined as the right to be protected from unwarranted intrusion by the government, media, or other institutions or individuals. There are many historical court cases dealing with the issue of privacy; some have become landmark cases that have shaped a whole new attitude about American civil rights. A few examples of such cases are The U.S Supreme Court decisions in Griswold vs. Connecticut (1965), and Roe vs. Wade and (1973). In addition to such monumental cases, many more recent, smaller cases have shaped the our right to privacy. Computer and telecommunication advances have made credit, medical, and other data readily available, highly marketable commodities, raising many concerns about individual's privacy. While few may be inclined to argue against the rights of citizens there is the question of the framers' original intent in adopting the Ninth Amendment. Most constitutional experts assume Madison meant simply "The enumeration of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people." (Amendment IX) However, "The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers and effects" has become a much more complicated issue than it was in the later part of the 18th century. The requirement of the states to include a Bill of Rights was ,in theory, a sound idea. The rights of the people should be protected. The times called for a specific list of these rights because of frequent failure to protest them. The purpose of the Bill of Rights was to state the rights of the people and to serve as law to protect them. The Bill of Rights lists both the civil liberties, freedoms guaranteed to an individual, and civil rights, what the government must provide for an individual.